Reference
- Disorders of Written LanguageDisorders of written language (DWL) are also referred to as disorders of written expression. The ability to write develops as part of a complex set of skills involving organization, problem solving, memory retrieval, reading and language abilities, and graphomotor skills. Any delay in these abilities can result in dysfunctional writing skills.
Frank Benson (1979) showed a lot of insight into agraphia. He says, “Agraphia may be defined simply as a loss or impairment of the ability to produce written language, caused by brain damage. There is nothing simple about agraphia, though” (p. 121). Although DWL include disorders caused by brain damage and disorders based on a developmental basis, both are language disorders and, as such, are brain-based disorders. In comparison, writing difficulties based on physical impairments (e.g., various bone disorders) would not be considered to fall under the umbrella of DWL. He notes that all forms of aphasia show agraphia of one sort or another, and the presence of agraphia is one sign of aphasia. However, he is quick to note that agraphia accompanies many disorders other than aphasia. This is best expressed by his comment that, “It would appear that writing is, at best, a tenuous accomplishment for most humans and that almost any brain abnormality can produce considerable disruption of writing skill” (p. 121).
According to Myklebust (1965), written language (visual expressive) is the last language skill we acquire and is dependent upon successful completion of the previous stages (inner, auditory receptive, auditory expressive, visual receptive). Interestingly, written language, the least used and practiced form of language, is 5,000 years old, whereas oral language is over a half million years old (Reed, 1970). According to Gaddes and Edgell (1994), written language is most often the first to show impairment with any type of brain insult. There are three types of DWL: aphasic, apraxic, and mechanical. - Disorders of Speech and LanguageIt is not unusual for very young children to have difficulty understanding and expressing themselves, but some people continue to experience language challenges, often into adolescence and adulthood. Teens with speech and language disorders may have trouble communicating with their peers, teachers, parents, and other adults. As they get older and classroom work requires more advanced oral and written communication skills, their schoolwork may suffer. Beyond that, language disorders in teens can lead to low self-esteem, poor interpersonal relationships, and difficulty succeeding in the workforce. When these issues are addressed early through professional intervention, the majority of children show considerable improvement, but for some individuals, treatment will continue as they get older, and for those who never received professional attention at a young age, evaluation and treatment may begin during the teen or adult years.
Speech and language disorders are among the most common disabilities faced by children and adolescents. According to government statistics, such disorders affect approximately 4.9 percent of U.S. students 11 to 17 years of age, in addition to even larger numbers of younger children.
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Perspectives
Handbook of Child Language Disorders
The acquisition of language is one of the most remarkable human achievements. When language acquisition fails to occur as expected, the impact can be far-reaching, affecting all aspects of the child's life and the child's family. Thus, research into the nature, causes, and remediation of children's language disorders provides important insights into the nature of language acquisition and its underlying bases and leads to innovative clinical approaches to these disorders. This second edition of the Handbook of Child Language Disorders brings together a distinguished group of clinical and academic researchers who present novel perspectives on researching the nature of language disorders in children. The handbook is divided into five sections: Typology; Bases; Language Contexts; Deficits, Assessment, and Intervention; and Research Methods. Topics addressed include autism, specific language impairment, dyslexia, hearing impairment, and genetic syndromes and their deficits, along with introductions to genetics, speech production and perception, neurobiology, linguistics, cognitive science, and research methods. With its global context, this handbook also includes studies concerning children acquiring more than one language and variations within and across languages. Thoroughly revised, this edition offers state-of-the-art information in child language disorders together in a single volume for advanced undergraduate students and graduate students. It will also serve as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners in speech-language pathology, audiology, special education, and neuropsychology, as well as for individuals interested in any aspect of language acquisition and its disorders.
Language Impairment and Psychopathology in Infants, Children, and Adolescents
Language Impairment and Psychopathology in Infants, Children and Adolescents examines the remarkably high correlation between language impairment and a range of psychopathologic disorders in children and adolescence Nancy J. Cohen provides an authoritative account of the types and range of language and communications impairments, including how language and communication relate to neurological functioning, attachment patterns, emotional regulation, academic achievement, and cognitive development. From a clinical perspective, this book covers impairment definitions and terminology, conditions associated with language impairment, developmental processes affected by language, assessment, and treatment interventions. Throughout, case studies illustrate the contribution of language and communication impairments to transactions, adaptations, and maladaptations that can occur during development. Findings from the literature, including the author's own research program, highlight the consequences of having problems with language and communication on interactions with the family, with peers, in school, and in the clinic.
Understanding Developmental Language Disorders
Developmental language disorders (DLD) occur when a child fails to develop his or her native language often for no apparent reason. Delayed development of speech and/or language is one of the most common reasons for parents of preschool children to seek the advice of their family doctor. Although some children rapidly improve, others have more persistent language difficulties. These long-term deficits can adversely affect academic progress, social relationships and mental well-being. Although DLDs are common, we are still a long way from understanding what causes them and how best to intervene. Understanding Developmental Language Disorders summarises the recent research developments in genetics and neuroimaging studies, assessment techniques and treatment studies to provide an overview of all aspects of DLD. The book investigates the possible genetic and biological causes of the disorder, how best to assess children's language skills to identify when and where communication breakdown occurs, what the long-term outcomes are for children who grow up with DLD, overlaps between DLD and other childhood disorders such as dyslexia and autism and how best to treat children with the disorder. Each chapter is written by a leading authority in the field in a format accessible to researchers, clinicians and families alike. This book, with its focus on both theory and practice, will be invaluable to students and researchers of speech-language pathology, psychology, psychiatry, linguistics and education. It will also be of interest to practicing speech-language pathologists, clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, educational psychologists, and teachers and parents of children with developmental language disorders.
Assessment of Language Disorders in Children
This book constitutes a clear, comprehensive, up-to-date introduction to the basic principles of psychological and educational assessment that underlie effective clinical decisions about childhood language disorders. Rebecca McCauley describes specific commonly used tools, as well as general approaches ranging from traditional standardized norm-referenced testing to more recent ones, such as dynamic and qualitative assessment. Highlighting special considerations in testing and expected patterns of performance, she reviews the challenges presented by children with a variety of problems--specific language impairment, hearing loss, mental retardation, and autism spectrum disorders. Three extended case examples illustrate her discussion of each of these target groups. Her overarching theme is the crucial role of well-formed questions as fundamental guides to decision making, independent of approach. Each chapter features lists of key concepts and terms, study questions, and recommended readings. Tables throughout offer succinct summaries and aids to memory. Students, their instructors, and speech-language pathologists continuing their professional education will all welcome this invaluable new resource. Distinctive features include: A comprehensive consideration of both psychometric and descriptive approaches to the characterization of children's language A detailed discussion of background issues important in the language assessment of the major groups of children with language impairment Timely information on assessment of change--a topic frequently not covered in other texts Extensive guidance on how to evaluate individual norm-referenced measures for adoption An extensive appendix listing about 50 measures used to assess language in children A test review guide that can be reproduced for use by readers.
Identifying Children with Speech and Language Disorders
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A fifth category of special needs involves children with speech and language disorders. Developmental tasks in speech and language development are detailed and indicators of impairments are described.
Overcoming Children's Language Problems: Speaking for Ourselves
- Films on Demand This link opens in a new windowApproximately 10% of children have some difficulties in learning to speak. This program explores how children learn to communicate and how parents can help their children overcome speech problems if they occur. It follows families as they work on their child’s speech and/or language skills in an institutional setting and at home; shows the challenges the children face in developing such social and physical skills as meeting new friends or learning new games; and explains the techniques for recognizing speech or language disorders, and why doing so is so important.
Websites
- Language and Speech Disorders in Children-CDCChildren are born ready to learn a language, but they need to learn the language or languages that their family and environment use. Learning a language takes time, and children vary in how quickly they master milestones in language and speech development. Typically developing children may have trouble with some sounds, words, and sentences while they are learning. However, most children can use language easily around 5 years of age.
- Oral / Written Language Disorder and Specific Reading Comprehension Deficit-Learning Disabilities Association of AmericaIndividuals with Oral / Written Language Disorder and Specific Reading Comprehension Deficit struggle with understanding and/or expressing language often in both oral and written forms.
These individuals often exhibit Specific Language Impairment related to deficits in semantic processing and syntactic processing.
Semantic processing relates to encoding the meaning of words. Syntactic processing relates to the understanding of the order of words and how that can change meaning. For example, the sentences “The blanket is on the baby” and “The baby is on the blanket” use the same words, but have different meanings. - Written Language Disorders-American Speech-Language-Learning AssociationA disorder of written language involves a significant impairment in fluent word recognition (i.e., reading decoding and sight word recognition), reading comprehension, written spelling, or written expression (i.e., written composition; Ehri, 2000; Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Kamhi & Catts, 2012; Tunmer & Chapman, 2007, 2012). A word recognition disorder is also known as dyslexia.
Written language disorders, as with spoken language disorders, can involve any of the five language domains (i.e., phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics). Problems can occur in the awareness, comprehension, and production of language at the sound, syllable, word, sentence, and discourse levels, as indicated in the table below (Nelson, 2014b; Nelson, Plante, Helm-Estabrooks, & Hotz, 2015). See ASHA's resource, disorders of reading and writing.