Reference
- Persecutions of the Church in the Roman EmpireChurch tradition speaks of 10 great persecutions, probably in imitation of the 10 plagues of Moses. Persecutions struck a nerve among Christians, and they produced martyrologies and legends. In reality there were diverse and localized persecutions but three widespread persecutions under Decius (249–250 CE), Valentianus (257–258 CE), and Diocletian (303–312 CE).
Stephen was the first martyr (ca. 35 CE), and then James of Zebeddee, and a general persecution broke out under Herod Agrippa (ca. 42 CE). The biblical book of Revelation speaks of societal hostility against the early Christians. Rarely did this persecution come from the government; usually it was from other religious groups (such as the Jews or the pagans). Nero (54–68) and Domitian (81–96) were known to have blamed Christians for problems of their own administration. The legal basis for these persecutions is known from the correspondence between Pliny and the emperor Trajan around 110: If a resident did not make offerings to the Roman gods, he or she could be executed. However, the Christians were not sought out by prosecutors, and emperors did not make it their business to conduct widespread campaigns against them. Later persecutions occurred when specific charges were filed: Polycarp of Smyrna (156), the Lyons martyrs (177), the Scillitan martyrs in Carthage (180), Felicity and Perpetua (203). Nonetheless, the persecutions were sporadic and local.
The first empire-wide persecution broke out in 249, when Emperor Decius tried to restore traditional values to the Roman state. He ordered that the annual Roman sacrifices be mandatory in various cities, and that prominent Christian leaders in those places be arrested and executed. Local commissions were set up to enforce these decrees. Only Decius's death in 251 cut short the serious threat to the church. The second big persecution was initiated by Valerius in 257. Initially, the decrees seemed to be motivated by a desire for church wealth, but a year later executions and cruel forms of punishment went beyond confiscations. Valerius would condemn Christians to the mines, beat them with whips, and shave their heads as runaway slaves and criminals. Eventually, the Roman Empire backed away from its anti-Christian position, and the church began to go public.
After 40 years of relative calm, the empire under Diocletian returned to its hostility against the church. Diocletian's major goal was to unify and rejuvenate the moribund empire, and the Christians were viewed as uncooperative. For nine years (303–312) the government pursued a program against the Christians, banning all scriptures, tearing down churches, prohibiting meetings, and stripping Christians of legal rights. At first Diocletian did not kill Christians, for he did not want martyrs, but later his deputies carried out massive executions, especially in North Africa.
When Diocletian retired in 305, persecution died out in the West but continued in the East. Later, when paganism did not revive and Christianity only grew, grudging official acceptance of Christianity was given in 311–312. The empire had little to gain by crushing the church.
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Online Resources
- Deviance, Persecution and the Roman Creation of Christianity Phillips, GervaseAlthough Roman persecution of Christians was sporadic and localised for much of the first three centuries of the church's existence, it is argued here that such persecution was nevertheless crucial in the creation and shaping of a distinct Christian identity. The primary deviance of the radical Jewish sect that had surrounded Jesus himself created a “sticky reputation” that endured even when the church had become largely politically and socially conservative. Periodic outbreaks of violence towards those labelled Christians by the authorities created a transactional relationship, in which the victims and their co‐religionists responded by the explicit adoption of a deviant identity and experienced the corollary reconstruction of the self in terms of attitudes, mores and affiliations (secondary deviance). This transaction halted a drift towards religious syncretism that might otherwise have seen Jesus take his place within the henotheistic Roman Pantheon, and thus ensured the survival of the Christian faith as monotheistic and oppositional to Roman religio...
- The Great Persecution : a historical re-examination"The Great Persecution under Diocletian and his imperial colleagues and successors is a foremost concern of modern scholarship on Roman persecution of Christians. This book is a systematic and comprehensive study of that persecution. Its focus is on events from 284 when Diocletian became emperor, to 313, when full religious liberty was granted to all religions by the so-called Edict of Milan. At least nine imperial orders were issued in 303 to 312 against Christianity. While Diocletian's orders were more concerned with the privileged upper classes of Christians, Maximinus Daia's orders were aimed at isolating all Christians from the Roman community. The enforcement of the imperial orders, and the sufferings of Christians under them, are examined on a diocese-by-diocese basis, comparing the situation in the West and in the East. In the late fourth century, Prudentius of Calahorra, poet and imperial official, complained about the loss of records on local martyrs, exclaiming, 'Alas for what is forgotten and lost to knowledge in the silence of the olden time! We are denied the facts about these matters, the very tradition is destroyed.' This book draws together the remains of what Prudentius feared was forgotten for ever."
- The Roman PersecutionsWork on the Roman persecutions over the last century has become increasingly “minimalist” in its reading of the level and interest of the Roman government in taking action against the early Christian faith. This chapter briefly sketches majorly contributions to that shift in scholarly opinion, before presenting the evidence for and possible interpretations of “persecution” under a selection of the Roman emperors. It ends by suggesting routes for future research.
Perspectives
Streaming Media
- The Grand Invention: ChristianityAt the moment of Paul’s conversion, the former persecutor of the Christians became one of the most avid defenders of the faith—and, in a way, the inventor of what came to be recognized as the Christian religion. Empowered by his revelatory vision, Paul acted independently to found the first Christian communities, but his efforts did not proceed smoothly. This program follows the travels and trials of Paul as he evangelized his way through the ancient world. In addition, Judaism and popular sects of paganism are considered within the context of early Christianity, the concept of Christian martyrdom is explored, and the transfiguration of Christianity from object of Roman persecution to state-sponsored religion of Rome is examined. (60 minutes)
- Trials and Triumphs in Rome: Christianity in the 3rd and 4th CenturiesPart one of this program places Christianity—an outlawed faith—within the context of the religiously diverse Roman Empire, whose citizens worshipped the old Greco-Roman gods, mystery cult figures such as Mithra, and the Emperor himself. But by appealing to all people and promising eternal salvation, Christianity began to surpass the popularity of the Roman religions. Part two begins with Diocletian’s Great Persecution; proceeds to Constantine’s conversion, the Edict of Milan, and the Council of Nicaea; and closes with the excommunication of Theodosius. (47 minutes)